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Which architecture is best? No yellow brick road
Each of the four architectures is powerful for specific performance outcomes and learning audiences. In brief, there are two major outcomes you might desire: to inform or to perform. Inform outcomes suggest that the main goal is to build awareness or enthusiasm for information. Perform outcomes imply the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Perform outcomes in turn can be divided into two major categories: procedural and principle-based. Procedural outcomes are those that support learning of step-by-step tasks that are completed in the same way each time.
Principle outcomes support tasks that require judgement in adapting guidelines to unique situations each time. For example, using the ATM or logging onto e-mail are procedural tasks;while designing a software program or making a sale are more principled in nature.
In addition to the performance outcome desired, the architectures are also better suited to different learners based on their prior experience. Novices generally perform better under more directive conditions, while more experienced learners do well with either guided discovery or exploratory environments. The following table summarizes the major features, goals, and applications for each architecture. Of course, there are few pure architectures because much instruction is a blend of two or more architectures. However, reflecting on the performance outcomes that are desired from the instruction and the type of learners involved is a good idea as you select your overall instructional design.
| Architecture |
Features |
Goals |
Sample applications |
| Receptive |
Provides linear information—typically with low learner control and few interactions |
To inform or motivate performers |
Briefings, marketing summaries, overviews |
| Directive |
Short lessons
Frequent practice
Corrective feedback
Simple to complex |
To teach procedural skills to novices |
Training on new computer systems, mathematical computations, and so forth |
| Guided discovery |
Problem-based
Situates learning in job-like environment
Uses simulation to compress experience
Errors are encouraged
Support is provided through coaching and expert models |
To build expert-like problem solving knowledge and skills
To accelerate expertise in principle-based domains |
Acquiring skills in principle-based domains such as designing computer programs, deciding whether a loan should be made, evaluating data for specific criteria, and so forth |
| Exploratory |
High learner control
Provides rich environment for learners to explore
Provides effective navigation for learner orientation |
For reference or for training of learners with good self-regulatory skills |
Learning a new programming language, researching information, and so forth |
The next section provides an overview of the human cognitive processes that are involved in learning, as well as the specific instructional methods that facilitate each of the major processes. The interaction between the four architectures and the cognitive processes will also be reviewed.
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